diesel motor home has

gas motorhomes diesel caravnas for hire rental camping-cars RV Central Site Directory Leaseback Program References Rental Rates Contact Us Home Rental Rates Make Money Reservations References List of Charges Insurance One-Way Trips Questions Tow Vehicles Housekeeping Kits Specials Breakdown of Fees Las Vegas Mexico Raceway Deal Contact Us Dump Sites Airport Shuttle RV Classes Your RV Traveler Help Campgrounds Pets Glossary RV History Los Angeles motorhome rentals rvs Las Vegas caravans for hire motorcaravans GAS OR DIESEL camping-cars Wohnmobilvermietung maisons motorises auto-caravannes rvs Engines Transmissions Chassis Hull Brakes Tires & Wheels Service Cost Cost Capacities returnto Rental Rates page recreational vehcicles california alquiler de autocaravanas motorse a louer RV Today all motor homes have many alluringfeatures, living comfort, power, torque, slide-outs, basement storage, ridingand driving comfort, fancy graphics and yesprestige. There is a wide array ofproducts to choose from for the first time owner or those considering anupgrade. They all share several common features, such roofair conditioners, hot water heaters, furnaces, kitchen stoves, refrigerators,and slide outs. Motor homes have become more luxurious and more sophisticated inthe last few years and of course with these enhancements the prices have goneup; so have the weights. To bridge the price gap between gas and diesels rigs,several new "entry level" diesel models have made their appearance.Their prices are only 20 to 30% more than the high-end gas motor homes. This hasled to a marked increase in diesel powered motor homes. So the question presents itself to the existinggas motor home owner or to the first time buyer: Should I spend more money andbuy a diesel pusher?" What follows is an attempt to give buyers some foodfor thought in the deliberation of this question. Lets compare the fundamentalparameters between todays gas powered motor homes vs. their dieselcounterparts. (This discussion will be limited to class A Motor Homes in therange of 32 feet to 40 feet in length.) Engines Herein lies the most distinguishing factorbetween the two types of motorhome. The gas power train will consist of a V 10,Ford or a V8, Chevy. These power plants were developed for the light dutytrucks. The horsepower rating of the V 10 has just been boosted to 310 hp, 6.8liter with 420 ft./lbs. of torque. The V8 offers 290 hp, 7.4 liter with 410ft./lbs. of torque. The gas hp ratings are "peak" and our onlydelivered at relatively high RPMs of 3600 to 4200. The diesel offerings are300hp, 8.3 liter with 860 ft./lbs. of torque, 330 hp, 8.3 liter with 950ft./lbs. of torque and 350 hp, 8.3 liter with 1050 ft./lbs. of torque; these areall the same Cummins (ISC) engine with different fuel management programs. Thediesel hp ratings are delivered at 2250 RPM. Caterpillar offers their 3126Bfamily in this range, with power ratings of either 300 hp or 330 hp. This classof engine was developed for RVs, delivery trucks, transit-mix trucks and schoolbuses. Even larger diesel power plants with ratings of 400 to 500 hp are alsoavailable on a few coaches. Cummins also makes the very popular entry-level ISB275 engine. It is a small (5.9-liter) engine, with a rating of 275-hp (2600 RPM)and 660 ft./lbs. of torque. A companion version is also now being offered with260-hp, 550 ft./lb. These smaller engines are all applied to lighter entry leveldiesel pushers. Diesel engines provide power and torque that agas owner can only dream about! Even the small 5.9-liter diesel will run off andleave a gas rig in hilly or mountain terrain. Torque is good, more of it isbetter; it is the force that causes something to move or go into motion. Dieselengines supply more torque than equivalent displacement gas engines and theydeliver their peak torque and peak horsepower at much lower RPMs. This resultsin less piston travel and engine crank rotations over a given distance. Thedirect result is less wear on engine components. This is why a diesel engine hasa life expectancy that is considerably longer than a gas engine; their longerwarranties reflect that fact. You wont see any commercial cross-countrytrucks with gas power plants; even the light intra city haulers are usuallydiesels. Another big plus for diesel power is the factthese turbo inducted units do not lose any of their power in the mountains. Gasengines typically lose 3 % of their power for each 1000-ft. of elevation.(Cummins power ratings are based on sea level to 7,000 ft. with no degradation.The diesel power plant is the big winner based on its ability to deliver higherhorsepower and more torque plus a much longer service life as opposed to the gasengine. Transmissions The gas motorhomes are coupled to, light truck, 4speed transmissions. The bigger, heavier diesels are all mated to the industrystandard, the Allison 6 speed World Transmission with few exceptions. (Some lowcost entry-level diesels offer the smaller 4 or 5 speed Allison transmission.)The 6-speed transmission is very rugged, and sophisticated. A powerful computercontroller adapts its shifting program to the drivers style and demands. Itis a true truck transmission. The shifting experience and power transfer withone of these transmissions has to be experienced. The electronic shift controlof the 6 close ratio gears, along with very timely converter lock-ups make for avery smooth and "seamless" operation! The gas engines transmissionstruggles because the ratio between the 4 gears is very wide. This is reallyevident when you have to start from a standing stop at the bottom of any kind ofincline. The diesel power train wins hands down, with the higher horsepower,higher torque, and 6 forward speeds. Chassis Before 1999 it was very easy to overload agas-powered motorhome. This was the year that one manufacture, (Ford), increasedtheir Gross Vehicle Weight Ratings (GVWR) by 3,500 lbs. This gives gas buyers a20,500-pound GVWR. Diesel-powered chassis offer GVWRs of 24,000 to 36,000lbs. Chassis lengths in gas rigs top out at 208 or 228 inches, beyond that theyresort to the use of a tag axle. Diesel chassis extend up to 278 inches, without a tag axle to supply 40 foot hull lengths. Some gas chassis extend 13.5feet beyond the drive axle; this creates a very significant "tailswing" when turning. The gas chassis are certainly adequate for mostmotorhome applications, however they do not begin to offer the quality of ride,steering control, nor the stability that is typically found in a diesel pusher.In a crosswind a gas rig driver will constantly be required to make steeringwheel adjustments to maintain course; this is referred to as "bumpsteering". It can be very tiring in the course of a days driving undersuch conditions. (The entry-level diesels will also exhibit this characteristicto a lesser degree.) The heavier diesel rigs with "active" air bagsuspension can typically be driven with one hand on the steering wheel, even inthe presence of a crosswind. They are much stronger and they of course are muchheavier. They have to be sturdier because they are supporting a very heavy powertrain and large payload capacity, compared with the typical gas powered unit.(An 8.3-liter diesel engine weighs 1530 lbs. while its Allision transmissionweighs 535 lbs.). The gas V10 engine weighs around 525 lbs. while itstransmission weighs in the area of 300 lbs. One subtle advantage of the dieselpusher with its rear engine is the fact the entry door can be placed up frontor mid-ship; this provides a more flexible floor plan that has no engine"dog house" in the front. The diesel chassis wins based on drivingstability, floor plan, quietness of operation, and comfort through out a day ofdriving. They produce less fatigue for driver and co-pilot; this yields moreenjoyment. The Hull The hulls or bodies of motor homes are all verysimilar. They all contain fiberglass exterior walls with aluminum or steelframes in the walls and roofs. Polystyrene foam board material is used forinstallation. The interior walls are covered with Luan and the ceilings androofs utilize a combination of plywood and Luan. The wall construction willtypically be done with vacuum bonding; Gel-Cote will cover the exterior walls.The graphics designs on the exterior of a gas rig will usually be accomplishedwith decals, whereas the diesel product will have those graphics spray paintedon. Decals have a limited life when exposed to the elements. The roof of the gasmotorhome will be rubber sheet (EPDM); it costs less than the fiberglass roofcoverings found on most diesels. Rubber roofs are harder to keep clean and treebranches can tear them. The diesel product will usually have fancier interiorswith cabinet quality that is generally superior to that found in the gasproduct. Gas rigs are not generally offered in lengths of over 36 feet (and thatis literally stretching itwith a tag axle). Diesels with lengths of 36, 38and 40 are the norm. Shorter, 32 and 34 foot, diesels are available They offer agreat power to weight ratio and they can go where many of the large rigs can't.If you are a full timer or extended traveler and you can afford onethe dieselpusher is highly desirable. Capacities These numbers are important to anyone who isgoing to "full time" or do extended travel in a motorhome. Gas modelsoffer a 75-gallon fuel tank; diesels offer fuel tanks of either 90, 100 or evenup to 150-gallon capacities. This provides the diesel owner with considerablygreater driving range between fuel stops. You will find larger capacities in theliquid tanks in a diesel. Storage capacity is generally bigger in a diesel vs. acomparable length gas unit. The diesel motor home has a definite advantage inall carrying capacities. Brakes The gas offerings have hydraulic disc brakes withABS. The diesels have air activated drum brakes with ABS. However, at least twodiesel pusher manufacturers offer very powerful hydraulic disc brakes with ABS.It is claimed that their braking efficiency is equal to or better than theconventional air brakes. It is generally an accepted fact that diesel motorhomes have superior braking systems compared to those of gas powered motorhomes.Today, all diesels come equipped with an exhaust brake retarder to help themease down grades; gas units lack this devise. A superior braking system is oneof the major strengths that diesels have over gas powered units. Tiresand Wheels Gas rigs come equipped with 19.5-inch wheels andlow profile tires; the 16-inch wheel is history. Diesel rigs come equipped with22.5 inch wheels and tires which may be of the low profile G 159 type or thelarge conventional truck tires that are either 250mm, 275mm or even 295mm insize. Whether gas or diesel powered, one needs to be assured that the tire loadratings are proper and have plenty of weight margin in their capacity. Largewheels and large tires help nullify the effects of road feedback; they generallyprovide a better rideassuming a decent suspension exists. Advantage diesel. ServiceCosts There can be no doubt that it is more expensiveto service and maintain a diesel powered motor home. The oil changes andfilters, diesel typically-24 quarts versus gas-6 quarts, plus the dieselslarge fuel and air filters will definitely cost the diesel owner a lot more.However Cummins has increased the oil service interval to 15,000 miles. Theheavier maintenance requirements for braking systems and the cost of tires willalso exceed the gas motor home service expenses. The diesel owner will nevermake up the difference based on the somewhat better fuel mileage that a dieselproduces. The advantage, here, lies with the gas-powered motorhome. Cost Finally there is the matter of price andaffordability. If price was not an objective, I suspect that almost everyone whowanted to own a motorhome would buy a diesel pusher. One must answer thequestion: "Is it worth it?" To many who can afford a diesel, theanswer is a resounding YES! The reasons are compelling and the value is therefor those who can see it. You may ask the question: "can I have fun andenjoy RVing in a gas rig"? Absolutely, they all can offer a lot ofpleasure. And the manufacturers are making our choices a lot easier by offeringso many entry-level models in gas and diesel. There is a suitable model outthere for everyone. It is hoped that the above discussion will assistmotor home buyers in their deliberations as to whether or not to make thefinancial investment in a diesel-powered motor home or a gas powered unit.

RV Travel Family Travel

Go RVing RVs, RV Rental, RVing and RV Resources RV travel park, dealer, rental, camping, campground and show information. An RV vacation is more than getting away; it's getting together. RVs give you more control, convenience, and comfort than other forms of travel.You go RVing for the same reasons you take any vacation. To get a break from the daily routine. To be with family and friends. To rest and relax. To see new places.GoRving.com provides an authoritative education. Learn the Two Types of RVs: Towable: Folding Camping Trailer, Truck Camper, Conventional Travel Trailer and Fifth-Wheel Travel Trailer. Motorized: Class A motorhome, Class B motor home (referred as the van camper) and Class C motor home (also called the mini-motorhome) Buying an RV Whether you are buying a new or used motor home, financing the purchase through a dealership with terms that fit your budget makes good financial sense. Once you finance your RV, learn about insurance. RV Rental There are approximately 3,000 dealers who offer pre-owned or used RVs. A dealer is the preferred source when purchasing your recreational vehicle ConvenienceFind the modern conveniences and creature comforts in many of today's motorhomes: Full bath with shower, refrigerator, and freezer w/ice maker. Microwave, dishwasher, full range with oven, satellite dish, Internet-ready computer station, Closed circuit rear-view camera, Washer and dryer, Whirlpool bath, Outdoor entertainment center, Patio awning Click the following links to explore our site: Site Map RV Travel Family Travel RV Vacation RV Camping and National Parks RV Buying and Renting Camping Trailer, Truck Camper, Fifth-Wheel Travel Trailer Towing Buying and Renting Guide Motorhome Buying and Renting Guide RV Show Calendar RV Insurance RV Rental Manufacturer Dealer Supplier Classes, Workshops, and Seminars Campgrounds

Recreation Vehicle

NYSORVA Home New York State Off-Highway Recreational Vehicle Association The Political Force Representing New York's Statewide ATV Community NYSORVA Home News Briefs E-Mail Newsletter Legislative Action ATV Safety Club Listings Ride New York Public Lands & Agencies It's the Law Support & Membership History of NYSORVA Contact Us Links FAQ Hot Topics ATV Trail Fund Established... Then Raided. DEC Draft ATV Policy Write to Your State Legislators DEC ATV Ban in Adk. Forest Preserve Proposed Trail Closure between Croghan and Harrisville Frivolous Enviro Lawsuits Hurt Economy, Environment & Taxpayer Take Back the NY State Legislative Process Current News: UPDATE 1/19/2006 The Governor has introduced his 2006-2007 State Budget proposal to again include provisions to create an ATV Trail Program. See the Legislation Page for NYSORVA's Legislative Position Statement, details on the ATV Trail Program proposal, plus background on the failure to deliver a Program in 2005 as promised in the State Budget Law -- despite the registration fee increase to $25 imposed in that Budget. None of the estimated $2.5M registration revenue in 2005-2006 was ever returned to trails ($12M and counting since 1986). 11/23/05 Notice to all New York ATV/OHM Dealers on Point-of-Sale Registration Requirement , became effective 4/1/05. As of 11/21/05, DMV has completed the Dealer Program and is now distributing forms and instructions for temporary registrations and for obtaining stocking dealer plates. Follow the link above for details. 10/25/05 BRV4WC v. NYS DEC Lawsuit, Dismissal Challenge Denied by Court Link to BRV4WC Press Release (PDF). Link to sample news article . Read the groundbreaking report released July 2005, Off-Highway Vehicle Recreation in the United States, Regions and States: A National Report from the National Survey on Recreation and the Environment (NSRE) (PDF, .6mb) in which the USDA Forest Service estimates that 1.9 million or 13.1% of New York citizens 16 and over pursue wheeled-OHV recreation (not to include snowmobiling). This figure eclipses by many times NYSORVA's previous user-population estimates. About NYSORVA NYSORVA is the statewide advocacy group focused on issues that affect the trail motorcycling and ATVing community, such as land-use issues and legislation. NYSORVA is recognized for it relevance by national organizations such as the American Motorcyclists Assn. (AMA), National Off-Highway Vehicle Conservation Council (NOHVCC), The Blue Ribbon Coalition (BRC), and the Motorcycle Industry Council (MIC). NYSORVA is the organization designated by a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with the Dept. of Environmental Conservation (DEC) as the state's conduit for communication with the wheeled off-highway vehicle (OHV) user community conservatively estimated to include well over 300,000 machines and their riders, and steadily growing. In brief, NYSORVA's mission is to work with all interested parties for increased safe and environmentally-conscious OHV recreational opportunities on both public and private lands in NY State. NYSORVA is a nonprofit corporation, is run entirely by a volunteer staff of trail riding enthusiasts, and is funded with donations from clubs, individuals, dealers and grant agencies. There are very limited publicly-open riding areas in NY for wheeled-OHVs and a few private club land areas. Your best bet for finding places to ride is to join a local club to learn of the opportunities in your area. See the New York Clubs page for a list of clubs and links. NYS law requires that any ATV (any multi-wheeled off-highway vehicle including trail bikes, defined per NYS Vehicle & Traffic law) be registered and insured for a minimum of liability, with few exceptions. However an ATV plate does not allow access to public highways unless a municipality has designated such roads for ATV travel (just a few localities have this provision for local roads), nor does paying the registration fee currently buy you any services (such as trail facilities) other than the peace of mind of legal compliance (see the full story in the " It's the Law " section). We hope that passage of a Trail Program bill will change this situation. Please ride safely, tread lightly, and keep your machines maintained and quiet, registered and insured. AE 4-5-05 Last updated 10/31/2005 [AE] Email: Webmaster (c) 1999-2005 NYSORVA, Inc. All rights reserved, including the URL "nysorva.org." The NYSORVA logo and any other proprietary graphics in this site may not be used without express permission from the NYSORVA Board of Directors. The above text, and any other text within subordinate pages of this site, constitutes an expression of opinion by NYSORVA, Inc. and must not be construed as legal advice of any kind. Should legal advice be needed regarding OHV issues, a competent licensed attorney should be retained.

Winnebago. Using the Internet,

Winnebago Winnebago History © (revised 9.30.00) [Note: This is a single part of what will be, by myclassification, about 240 compact tribal histories (contact to 1900). Itis limited to the lower 48 states of the U.S. but also includes thoseFirstNations from Canada and Mexico that had important roles ( Huron ,Assiniboine, etc.). This history's content and style are representative. The normal processat this point is to circulate an almost finished product among a peergroup for comment and criticism. At the end of this History you willfind links to those Nations referred to in the History of theWinnebago. Using the Internet, this can be more inclusive. Feel free to comment orsuggest corrections via e-mail. Working together we can end some of thehistorical misinformation about Native Americans. You will find the egoat this end to be of standard size. Thanks for stopping by. I look forward to your comments... Lee Sultzman. WinnebagoLocation The Winnebago do not remember a time when they did not live at Red Bankson the south shore of Green Bay. Their occupation of Wisconsin is veryancient, perhaps thousands of years. Although they have no memories ofmound-building, they may well be descendents of the earlier Mississippian,Hopewell, and Adena cultures. Their homeland lay between Green Bay andLake Winnebago in northeast Wisconsin but they dominated the area fromUpper Michigan south to present-day Milwaukee extending west to theMississippi. Beginning in the 1640s, thousands of Algonquin refugees fromthe Beaver Wars (1630-1701) invaded Wisconsin from the east, and theresulting wars and epidemics brought the resident tribes, Winnebago and Menominee , to the point of near extinction. The Winnebago who survivedremained near Green Bay but were forced to share their homeland with othertribes. After the French and Great Lakes Algonquin victory over the Iroquois in1701, many of the refugee tribes left Wisconsin allowing the Winnebago toreclaim some of their homeland - especially after the near-annihilation ofthe Fox during the Fox Wars (1712-16 and 1728-37). The Winnebago spreadsouth afterwards along the Wisconsin and Rock Rivers into southernWisconsin eventually claiming a portion of northwestern Illinois. Americansettlement of Wisconsin began after 1825, and the Winnebago rapidly lostterritory. By 1840 the Winnebago had ceded their Wisconsin land and agreedto move to northeast Iowa. Despite this many Winnebago remained inWisconsin defying efforts to remove them. During the next 50 years, thethe Winnebago were shifted around like a piece of unwanted baggage. In1848 the Winnebago were sent north to the Crow Wing River in Minnesota.Eight years later, they were moved south to Blue Earth county, Minnesotawhere they remained until after the Sioux uprising in 1862. Although theWinnebago had no part in this, the government deported them to SouthDakota and placed with the Nakota (Yankton Sioux). At this point, the Winnebago began to rebel. Many left the reservation andreturned to Iowa, Minnesota or Wisconsin. The others fled down theMissouri to the Omaha Reservation in Nebraska. In 1865 the governmentaccepted this and created a separate Winnebago Reservation (40,000 acres)in northeast Nebraska. During their many moves, many Winnebago never leftWisconsin. In addition, some had managed to stay in northeast Iowa andsouthern Minnesota when the main group was moved. Raided by the Lakota andpressured to allot their reservation, many Winnebago left Nebraska duringthe 1870s and 80s and went home to Wisconsin. The government would sendthem back, but the Winnebago just kept going, and the government finallygave up and purchased land in Wisconsin for the Winnebago. As a result,there are two separate Winnebago tribes today: the Wisconsin Winnebagowith 4,400 acres (333 acres tribally owned) scattered in small holdingsacross ten counties; and the Nebraska Winnebago who still have 27,500acres from their 1865 reservation, 3,100 belongs to the tribe. Population Estimates of the Winnebago's pre-contact population are usually about8,000, but it probably was much higher. On Nicollet's second visit to theWinnebago in 1639, he estimated they had 5,000 warriors suggesting apopulation of 20,000. This higher figure would explain the pre-contactdominance of the region by the Winnebago. It is also more in line withWinnebago's own tradition which says that, due to over-population, severallarge groups of their people (Otoe, Missouri, and Iowa) left shortlybefore Nicollet's visit. Whatever their original number, the sudden dropin their population during the next 30 years was one of the most worstexperienced by any tribe. When the French returned to Wisconsin in 1665,wars and epidemic had reduced the Winnebago to fewer than 500. From the point of near-extinction, the Winnebago began a slow recovery. In1736 the French said there were about 700, but afterwards they grewrapidly through intermarriage with neighboring Algonquin. While othernative populations declined, the Winnebago actually increased. ZebulonPike made the first American estimate in 1806 - about 2,000, but heprobably was too low. In 1825 American Indian agents in Wisconsin gave5,800, and even after a smallpox epidemic in 1835 killed 25%, this onlydropped to 4,500. The first accurate count in 1842 was 2,200 Winnebagoliving in Iowa near Fort Atkinson. The trouble was no one knew how manyWinnebago were still in Wisconsin. Four years later, the government saidthere were 22 Winnebago bands totaling 4,400 people. By 1848 the figurewas back to 2,500. There were 1,756 "official" Winnebago in Minnesota in1856 - 1,200 of whom were finally settled in Nebraska in 1865. The Wisconsin Winnebago (Ho-Chunk Nation) at first actually avoided seekingfederal recognition and delayed this until 1963. Tribal headquarters are atBlack River Falls with an enrollment close to 5,000. Taken together, thereare currently more than 12,000 Winnebago which makes them one of the largertribes in the United States. Names Like many other tribes, the Winnebago's name is not what they calledthemselves. It comes from a Fox word "Ouinipegouek" meaning "people of thestinking water." No insult was intended. Instead, the name referred toalgae-rich waters of the Fox River and Lake Winnebago where the Winnebagooriginally lived. The French translated this as "stinking people" andshortened it to Puan. In its English form, it became Stinkard. For obviousreasons, the Winnebago have never been overly fond of this name. They callthemselves Hochungra (Hochungara, Hotcangara, Ochangra) "people of the bigspeech" - perhaps better rendered as "people of the parent speech"referring to their role as "grandfathers," the original people from whichother Siouan-speaking tribes sprang. Dissatisfied with their Algonquinname, the Wisconsin Winnebago recently changed their official name toHocak Nation (pronounced Hochunk). Other names include: Aweatsiwaenhronon(Huron), Banabeouik, Bay Indians, Hatihshirunu (Huron), Hotanka (Dakota),Mipegoe, Nipegon, Ochungaraw (Otoe, Iowa, Omaha, and Missouri), andOtonkah (Dakota). Language Siouan - Chiwere. Besides the Dakota (Sioux) at the west end of LakeSuperior, the Winnebago were the only Siouan-speaking people of the GreatLakes. Their language is identical to that of the Iowa, Otoe, and Missouriwho acknowledge that they separated from the Winnebago shortly beforecontact. Although the Sioux (Dakota, Nakota, and Lakota) have provided thename for the Siouan language group, it appears likely that Winnebago mayhave been the more important branch. It is closer to the Dhegiha dialectof the Osage, Quapaw, Omaha, Kansa, and Ponca (who call the Winnebagograndfathers or elder brothers). There also appears to be a closerrelationship of Winnebago to the Mandan from North Dakota and the Siouanspeaking tribes in the southeast United States. Siouan-speakers in NorthAmerica originally were located along a diagonal line extending roughlyfrom North Dakota to South Carolina. The Winnebago position in Wisconsinwas near the midpoint which lends weight to their claim as the"grandfather tribe." Villages Only a few names have survived, all of which were in Wisconsinexcept as noted: Butte des Mortes, Prairie la Crose, Red Banks, Sarrochau, Spotted Arm'sVillage, Tokaunee, Village du Puant (IN), Wuckan, and Yellow Thunder. Culture Mention Sioux, and visions of war bonnets, horses, buffalo, and tepeesflood the mind. However, this would be a poor description of theWinnebago. Although the Winnebago spoke a Siouan language, they were verymuch a woodland tribe whose lifestyle and dress closely resembled theirAlgonquin neighbors in the upper Great Lakes. Like other Siouan-speakingpeoples, the Winnebago were taller than other natives (for that matter,taller than most Europeans). Nicollet in 1634 described them as brave butlacking in humility ...almost to the point of arrogance. Their clothingwas fringed buckskin, which the Winnebago frequently decorated withbeautiful designs created from porcupine quills, feathers and beads - askill for which they are still renown. Men originally wore their hair intwo long braids, but in time this changed to the scalplock and roachheaddress favored by the Algonquin. Body tattooing was common to bothsexes. In the process of rebuilding their population after 1670, the Winnebagofrequently intermarried with Algonquin. So much so, it has been suggestedthey lost their original traditions and replaced them with Algonquin.Intermarriage certainly happened, and as a result, the purest Winnebagobloodline may actually be the Iowa and Otoe-Missouri. However, prior tocontact the Winnebago resembled the Algonquin in so many ways, there wasnot that much to change. The Winnebago were one of the northernmostagricultural tribes. In spite of a limited growing season, the Winnebagosuccessfully grew three types of corn together with beans, squash, andtobacco. They supplemented this with fishing and hunting, includingbuffalo from the prairies of southern Wisconsin. Using dugout canoes(rather than the lighter birchbark variety used by the Ojibwe and Ottawa),they also gathered wild rice from the nearby lakes during the fall. TheWinnebago used pottery for cooking and food storage, and copper implementswere fairly common since it was easily available from the south shore ofLake Superior. The Winnebago also resembled the Algonquin in that they were patrilinealwith descent and clan membership determined by the father. Winnebago clansserved both ceremonial and social functions, but in distinctive Siouancharacteristic, were grouped into two major divisions, or moieties: anUpper (Sky) with four clans; and a Lower (Earth) having eight. Of these,the Thunderbird and Bear clans were the most important with the hereditaryhead chief of the Winnebago almost always chosen from the Thunderbirdclan. Clan membership was more important among the Winnebago than bandaffiliation, and a Winnebago chief governed with the help of a councilcomposed of the principal members of each clan. Despite intermarriage withAlgonquin, it would appear the Winnebago made few changes to theirtraditional social or political structures. Of course, they never surrendered their distinctive Siouan language, butit was not uncommon for a Winnebago to speak several languages besides hisown (Algonquin, French, and English). Originally a farming people, theWinnebago lived in large semi-permanent villages. Unlike the Algonquin,they followed the Siouan pattern and did not usually separate to small,scattered hunting camps during winter - a possible link to the earlierMississippian Culture. The Algonquin influence, however, revealed itselfin the eight types of lodge (round or oval) the Winnebago are known tohave used during the historic period. This included the tepee fortemporary shelter on buffalo hunts. Burials varied according to clan withthe dead either buried or placed on a platform. Some things, however,never changed. They were always allies of the Menominee, but throughouttheir long history, the Winnebago remained enemies of the Illinois. History For as long as anyone can remember, the Winnebago lived in the vicinity ofGreen Bay in northeastern Wisconsin. The most powerful tribe in theregion, they dominated the western shore of Lake Michigan from UpperMichigan to southern Wisconsin. As part of major climatic change in NorthAmerica sometime around 1400, three closely related tribes - Ojibwe,Potawatomi, and Ottawa - began moving west along the shore of Lake Hurontowards the point where Lakes Superior, Huron, and Michigan meet. TheOttawa stopped at Manitoulin Island, but the Ojibwe occupied the northshore of Lake Huron including Upper Michigan near Sault Ste. Marie. About1500 the Potawatomi crossed over the Strait at Mackinac into northern partof the Lower Michigan peninsula. The invasion drove the original tribes ofthe region south and west. Among the victims were the Menominee andpossibly the Cheyenne, Sutai, and Arapaho. The Menominee were forced southwhere they became tributary and allies of the Winnebago. The Cheyenne andArapaho, however, were set adrift to the west until they reached the GreatPlains. The Winnebago were obviously powerful enough for the moment to prevent theOjibwe from moving further south, but the loss of territory and and agrowing population must have stressed the resources available to them.From subsequent events, it appears that the Winnebago tried to solve thisby moving into southern Wisconsin creating confrontations with the tribesof the Illinois Confederation. With no place to expand, the Winnebagobegan to separate. Sometime around 1570, the Iowa, Missouri, and Otoe leftthe Winnebago near Green Bay and moved west. Passing down the WisconsinRiver, they crossed the Mississippi and settled in Iowa before separatinginto individual tribes. Weakened by this defection, the remainingWinnebago concentrated into large villages near Green Bay to defend theirhomeland against the Ojibwe from the north or Illinois in the south. It was in this state of siege that the Winnebago felt the first effects ofEuropeans in North America. The French had begun their fur trade along theSt. Lawrence River in 1603 and, during 1609, had helped the Algonkin,Huron and Montagnais defeat the Iroquois and drive them south. Followingthe Ottawa River west, Étienne Brulé reached the Huron villages in 1611and Sault Ste. Marie in 1623. But for the most part, the French stopped atthe Huron villages on the south end of Lake Huron and allowed nativetraders to conduct the fur trade beyond that point. The Ottawa and Huronsoon linked with the Ojibwe in upper Michigan and then made attempts toopen trade with the Winnebago to south. The French first learned about theWinnebago from the Ottawa in 1620, and what they heard was not especiallygood. Knowing that the Ottawa were closely related to and trading withtheir Ojibwe enemies, the Winnebago were suspicious and refused to allowOttawa and Huron traders to proceed further west. The matter smoldered for several years, while the Winnebago felt theirfirst taste of the steel weapons the Ojibwe were receiving from the Frenchin exchange for their furs. Trying to break the impasse, the Ottawafinally sent envoys to the Winnebago to arrange trade. Revealing a talentfor treachery, the Winnebago killed and ate the Ottawa representatives.While the Ottawa and Huron prepared for war, the French in 1634 sent JeanNicolet west to the Winnebago on what appeared to be a suicide mission.When Nicollet landed at Red Banks on the south shore of Green Bay, he wasthe first European the Winnebago had ever seen which probably saved hislife. Nicollet ultimately succeeded in arranging a truce between theWinnebago, Huron, and Ottawa which allowed trade. The fragile arrangementlasted for some time afterwards allowing Nicollet to make a second visitto the Winnebago villages at La Baye (Green Bay) in 1639. Twenty-six yearswould pass before another Frenchman would visit Green Bay. The Winnebago were almost destroyed in the meantime. The Beaver Warsstarted in 1628 when the Iroquois , having defeated the Mahican for controlof the Dutch fur trade, began a war to reclaim their territory on theupper St. Lawrence River from the Algonkin. Montagnais , and Huron. Thefighting quickly spread west to other tribes. Having exhausted the beaverin their homelands, Ottawa, Neutral , and Tionontati warriors equipped withfirearms and steel weapons invaded lower Michigan to seize huntingterritory from the Algonquin living there. The first refugees from thesewars to arrive in Wisconsin were a group of Potawatomi who attempted tosettle near Green Bay in 1641. Showing no mercy, the Winnebago immediatelyattacked and by 1642 had driven them north into upper Michigan. Unfortunately, this was only the beginning. The remaining Potawatomi soon joined the early arrivals followed by other tribes from lower Michigan. As all of these refugee tribes united against them, disagreements arose among the Winnebago over how to deal with the situation resulting in fighting among themselves. In the end most Winnebago decided on war and to concentrate on the Fox. Disaster was immediate. Crossing Lake Winnebago in canoes to attack the Fox, the Winnebago were caught in a storm and 500 warriors were drowned. The three largest Winnebago bands then drew together into a single village - a traditional defensive measure in times of war, but it proved to be a death trap. 12,000 people in a confinedspace was the perfect conditions for the epidemics which accompanied the refugees to Wisconsin, and they struck the Winnebago with devastating effect. Smallpox has been blamed, but the Winnebago say the disease turned their people yellow suggesting it was something else. The Winnebago emerged from this with less than 1,500 warriors and 4,500people. They were also starving since war and epidemic had made itimpossible to harvest their crops. As mentioned, the hostility between theIllinois and Winnebago must have existed for many years before therefugees began to arrive. Perhaps motivated by a need to form an allianceagainst the newcomers who were also overrunning their territory, or evenpity for an old enemy fallen on hard times, the Illinois sent 500 warriorsand food to help the Winnebago. This proved a serious mistake. TheWinnebago welcomed and held a feast for them, but in the midst of thedancing and celebration, they secretly cut the Illinois' bowstrings. Thenthey fell upon their benefactors and killed all of them to appease thespirits of Winnebago warriors killed earlier by the Illinois. It took the Illinois some time to learn what had happened. In themeantime, the Winnebago had anticipated retaliation and retreated to anisland in the middle of a lake where they built a fort. A sensibleprecaution, since it was impossible for the Illinois to bring their heavydugout canoes overland with them to attack the Winnebago. The Illinoisproved patient and waited a year to take revenge. When the lake froze thatwinter, a large Illinois war party crossed over the ice to attack thevillage only to find the Winnebago were absent on their winter hunt. Aftera six-day pursuit, they caught up with the Winnebago and, during theslaughter which followed, almost annihilated them. Few Winnebago escapedto find refuge with the Menominee. About 150 Winnebago prisoners weretaken back as slaves to the Illinois villages and, after several years ofhard usage, released to return to Wisconsin. Less than 500 Winnebagosurvived to provide a future for their people, but theirnear-extermination was the second serious mistake made by the Illinois.Despite the circumstances which had caused it, the Winnebago never forgaveor forgot what had happened. In the east the Beaver Wars had grown in intensity and threatened theFrench fur trade. The climax came in the early spring of 1649 when theIroquois overran and destroyed the Huron. Other French allies fell victimduring the next few years while the Iroquois moved into the Ottawa Valleycutting French access to the western Great Lakes. The Iroquois theninvaded lower Michigan during the 1650s expelling the remaining Algonquin.20,000 refugees fled west to Wisconsin producing a tide which thedecimated Menominee and Winnebago could not resist. Even the Illinois wereforced to surrender territory in southern Wisconsin. So far as is known,the Winnebago made only one attempt at resistance during this period whenthey managed to keep the Mascouten from locating near Green Bay in 1655.However, this success proved temporary and made the Winnebago hated by therefugees. Within three years the Mascouten had allied with the Kickapoo and Miami and settled where they pleased. Only Iroquois attacks in thearea during 1660 forced them inland to a safer location at the Fox Portage. The Iroquois victory over the Huron in 1649 had virtually destroyed theFrench trade, but they managed to continue on a limited basis by invitingtribes to bring their furs to Montreal. This was only possible for large,heavily-armed canoe fleets able to fight their way past the Iroquois onthe Ottawa River. Having become dependent on French trade goods, only theOttawa and Huron were willing to try, and supported by Ojibwe warriors,they fought their way to and from Montreal. In this manner, French tradegoods continued to reach the western Great Lakes in limited amounts, butit also brought Iroquois war parties west to Wisconsin to stop the tradeat its source. The French had made a separate peace with the Iroquois in1645, but this collapsed in 1658. Six years of raids and harassmentfollowed before the French got serious and sent a regiment of soldiers toQuebec to deal with the Iroquois. Their attacks on Iroquois homelandproduced an alliance between the British and Iroquois and marked thebeginning of the British-French struggle for control of North America. Meanwhile, the French resumed travel to the western Great Lakes. In 1665fur trader Nicholas Perrot, Jesuit Claude-Jean Allouez, and four otherFrenchmen accompanied a large Huron-Ottawa trading party (400 warriors) onits return journey. After fighting their way past the Iroquois along theOttawa River, they reached Green Bay. What they found was a disaster: war,disease, and starvation. Allouez mentioned sadly that only 500 remained ofonce-numerous Winnebago described by Nicollet. French attacks on theIroquois homeland produced a lasting peace in 1667. For the first time, italso extended to French allies and trading partners, including those inthe western Great Lakes. This allowed the French to resume their furtrade, but they first needed to bring some order to the area and end thewarfare. Using the threat of withholding trade, they began mediatingintertribal disputes, a role which eventually evolved into therelationship of Onontio (the French governor of Canada) and his "Indianchildren." Although the French fur trade had been at the root of the Beaver Warswhich almost destroyed the Winnebago, it also saved them from extinction.As peace was restored, the Winnebago accepted the Algonquin refugees inWisconsin and began to intermarry with them adapting parts of theirculture in the process. The exception, of course, being that there wasnothing the French could do to end the Winnebago's hatred of the Illinois.The peace lasted thirteen years, until the Beaver Wars renewed to thesouth in 1680 between the Iroquois and Illinois. The Winnebago must havetaken a certain pleasure during the next two years while Seneca warparties struck the Illinois with genocidal effect. During 1684, however,the Iroquois failed to take Fort St. Louis on the upper Illinois Riverafter which the tide turned. The French strengthened their forts, providedfirearms to their allies, and organized an alliance to fight the Iroquois. The alliance took the offensive in 1687, and by 1690 the Iroquois were onthe defensive and retreating towards their New York homeland. The warfare(coinciding with the King William's War (1688-97) between Britain andFrance) continued until a peace was signed in 1701 which left the Frenchand their allies in control of the Great Lakes. Still recovering theirpopulation, Winnebago participation in this victory was minimal but thebenefits enormous. With the Iroquois defeated, refugees began leavingWisconsin for new homes to the south and east. This relieved theovercrowding and competition for resources, and after 60-years, theWinnebago regained most of their homeland. Meantime, the French fur tradehad continued unrestricted and by the 1690s had produced a glut of fur onthe European market. The resulting price drop motivated the Frenchmonarchy to finally listen to protests from Jesuit missionaries about thecorruption the fur trade was creating among Native Americans. In 1696licenses were revoked and trade suspended in the western Great Lakes. Since the French alliance was based on trade, it was a terrible decision.Even while they were going down in defeat, the Iroquois sensed the Frenchvulnerability and began to offer French allies access to British tradersat Albany. Suspecting the French would make their own peace with theIroquois, the alliance began to unravel, and the French had greatdifficulty getting their allies to agree to the peace signed with theIroquois in 1701. Urgent appeals sent to Paris from Canada asking for aresumption of trade in the Great Lakes brought limited relief in 1701 whenAntoine Cadillac was allowed to build Fort Pontchartrain at Detroit totrade with the Great Lakes tribes. Cadillac quickly invited just aboutevery tribe in the region to move to Detroit, and the result wasovercrowding and warfare between former allies. Rather than solving theproblem, it further strained what remained of the French alliance andduring 1712 erupted into the First Fox War (1712-16). Following confrontations with neighboring tribes, the Fox, Kickapoo, andMascouten attacked the French at Fort Pontchartrain. In midst of thesiege, Ottawa, Huron, and Potawatomi warriors arrived to save the Frenchand killed most of the Fox. The survivors retreated west to southernWisconsin from where they continued to war on the French and their allies.Although the Winnebago had helped the Fox drive the Kaskaskia (part of thehated Illinois) from southern Wisconsin in 1700, they had never leftWisconsin. When the war between the French and Fox moved west, theWinnebago remained neutral. The French used Potawatomi allies to defeatthe Kickapoo and Mascouten taking them out of the war, but an expeditionagainst a Fox fort in southern Wisconsin ended in frustration. Afterwards,the French offered peace, and the Fox accepted. The fighting stopped, butneither side, trusted the other. Unfortunately, it did not end the fighting between the Fox and Peoria(Illinois) after the Peoria refused to return Fox prisoners captured atDetroit in 1712. French attempts to mediate failed, and the war spread asthe Mascouten and Kickapoo joined the Fox against the Peoria. By 1724 theFox had added the Winnebago and Dakota to their side, and the French beganto suspect the Fox were forming an alliance against them. With theIllinois getting the worst of it, the French decided to intervene in 1726and sent an expedition against the Fox. Like their previous efforts tosubdue a tribe they considered a troublemaker, this accomplished nothing,and the French decided to exterminate the Fox. However, they first tookthe precaution of isolating the Fox from their allies. The Dakota droppedout, and then the Winnebago. With the outbreak of the Second Fox War (1728-37), the Winnebago switchedto the French. During the winter of 1729, a combined Winnebago, Menominee,Ojibwe war party attacked a Fox hunting party killing at least 80 warriorsand capturing some 70 women and children. The French, in the meantime, hadreoccupied their old fort at La Baye to prosecute the war against the Fox.Concerned about Fox retaliation, the Winnebago moved close to Green Bayand built a fort on an island in the Fox River. The Fox found them but thefort was too strong for direct attack, so they laid siege. To appease theFox, the Winnebago seized two Menominee who had married into their tribeand killed them. The headless bodies were thrown outside the fort with theexplanation that the Winnebago had killed them because they were part ofthe war party which had attacked the Fox. This did not satisfy the Fox whocontinued the siege. The French finally arrived from Green Bay with 34Menominee warriors to help the Winnebago, but when the Menominee learnedwhat had happened, it was all the French could do to stop them, with Foxwarriors just outside the gate, from killing every Winnebago in sight. The Fox eventually abandoned the siege, after which the Winnebago madeamends with the Menominee who had always been their allies. The warcontinued during which the Mascouten and Kickapoo ended their alliancewith the Fox after a fatal argument over French prisoners. Without allies,the Fox decided in 1730 to leave Wisconsin and flee east to the Iroquois.Caught in the open in northern Illinois, they were almost annihilated bythe French and their allies. The few remaining Fox found refuge with theSauk living near Green Bay, but the French were determined to finish theFox and dispatched an expedition in 1734 to demand the Sauk surrender theFox. This was refused, and in the battle which followed, the Frenchcommander was killed. In the confusion, the Sauk and Fox escaped and fledwest of the Mississippi into Iowa. Another French expedition against themfailed in 1736, and at a conference held in Montreal during the spring of1737, the Winnebago and Menominee asked the French to show mercy to theFox while the Potawatomi and Ottawa made the same request on behalf of theSauk. The French reluctantly agreed and made peace. The departure of the Fox andSauk from Wisconsin provided the Winnebago an opportunity to expand theirrange to the south and west. Although some Winnebago remained in thevicinity of Green Bay after 1741, most moved their villages inland. Sincethe animal populations near Green Bay had never recovered from the stressplaced on them by the refugees during the 1600s, the Winnebago had beenforced to make longer and longer trips inland to feed themselves and findthe furs they needed for trade with the French. Although the Dakota andOjibwe were at war with each other over hunting territory in westernWisconsin, neither objected to Winnebago hunters in the area. TheMenominee enjoyed the same immunity, but in their case, the Fox and Saukwere a serious threat. The Winnebago were able to establish a friendlyrelationship with the Fox and Sauk after 1737, but the Menominee could not. Little fighting occurred in the western Great Lakes during the KingGeorge's War (1744-48), but Winnebago warriors travelled east to Montrealwith the Ottawa, Menominee, Saulteur and Mississauga Ojibwe, Illinois,Potawatomi, and Huron to defend Quebec from the British. The capture ofthe French fortress at Louisbourgh in 1745 allowed a British blockade ofthe St. Lawrence which cut the supply of French trade goods. The effectwas immediate, and the French quickly lost control of their allies in thethe Great Lakes. Nowhere was this more apparent than with the increasinglybeleaguered Illinois. In 1746 while the Winnebago and Menominee werefighting the Missouri west of the Mississippi, the Mascouten, Potawatomi,Menominee, and Ojibwe joined to force the Peoria from their laststrongholds in southern Wisconsin. Without the leverage of their tradegoods, the French were powerless to protect the Illinois, and the otherAlgonquin continued to attack them. Between 1751 and 1754, the Mascouten,Kickapoo, and Potawatomi took more territory from the Peoria - this timein northern Illinois. With the start of the French and Indian War (1755-63), the Winnebago onceagain went east to fight for the French. They helped to defeat Braddock atFort Duquesne and also fought at Oswego and in the French campaign innorthern New York in 1757. They paid a terrible price when Great Lakeswarriors contracted smallpox at Fort William Henry and brought it backwith them to their villages that winter. Smallpox swept through the GreatLakes and Ohio Valley taking most the western tribes out of the war.Meanwhile, a British blockade was having the same effect it had in 1746 instopping French trade goods. Dissatisfaction resulted, and during thewinter of 1758, an Menominee uprising at Green Bay killed 22 Frenchsoldiers. After the capture of Quebec by the British in September, 1759.France had lost the war in North America. Montreal surrendered thefollowing year, and British soldiers occupied Green Bay in 1761. The breakdown of French authority in the region had brought the Winnebago,Menominee, Potawatomi, and Winnebago at Green Bay to the verge of war withthe Michilimackinac Ojibwe in 1761, but the British assumed the old Frenchrole of mediator and provider of trade goods. In preventing the outbreakof serious warfare, the British won the trust and loyalty of the Winnebagoand Menominee. With the start of the Pontiac Rebellion in 1763, theWinnebago (also the Menominee, Sauk, Fox, Iowa and Arbre Croche Ottawa)sent wampum belts to the British as a token of their loyalty. Pontiac'srevolt quickly collapsed, and discredited among his own people aftersigning a peace with the British in 1766, he abandoned his village nearDetroit and moved to northern Illinois where he still had a loyalfollowing. In 1769 he was murdered by the nephew of a Peoria chief duringa visit to Cahokia (just east of St. Louis). Almost all of tribes of theold French alliance united in a war against the Illinois and almostexterminated them. The Peoria made their last stand at Starved Rock thatyear from which fewer than 200 reached safety at the French settlement ofKaskaskia. After a long wait, the Winnebago finally had their revengeagainst the Illinois. The victors then occupied much of the Illinoisterritory - the Winnebago's share was a portion of northwest Illinoisvalued because of its lead deposits. During the next 50 years, the Winnebago would ally with the British byfighting both the Spanish and Americans during the Revolutionary War(1775-83) and The Americans during the War of 1812 (1812-14). Earlyfighting in the west during the Revolutionary War was mostly confined toOhio and Kentucky and did not involve the Winnebago. George Rogers Clark'scapture of the Illinois country in 1778 created alarm. and the Britishmoved to reconcile disputes between the Great Lakes tribes and to use themagainst the Americans. To this end, they settled the lingering hostilitybetween the Green Bay tribes and the Michilimackinac Ojibwe as well asother disputes between the Ojibwe, Fox, and Sauk. and the Potawatomi andMiami. This allowed the Winnebago (also Fox, Sauk, Potawatomi, Dakota, andMenominee) in 1780 to join an unsuccessful British effort to capture St.Louis from the Spanish (Spain had joined the war against Britain) andretake Illinois from the Americans. The Revolutionary War "officially"ended in 1783 with the Treaty of Paris, but in the Ohio Valley, theBritish continued to occupy Detroit and their other forts on Americanterritory until the United States paid its treaty obligations to Britishloyalists. In the meantime, the British encouraged the formation of a westernalliance to keep the Americans out of Ohio. They succeeded until theBattle of Fallen Timbers in 1794. The Winnebago in Wisconsin were too faraway to participate in this effort, but the British dominated the tribesand trade of the Upper Great Lakes until the 1830s. Intertribal warfareduring the 1770s and 80s had hindered the fur trade, and at the request ofMontreal fur traders, the British met with the tribes of upper Great Lakesat Michilimackinac in October, 1786. The treaty signed there produced 20years of peace with the exception of the war between the Dakota and Ojibwewhich continued until the 1850s. This, however, was not a problem for theWinnebago who were friendly with both parties and free to hunt in the warzone between them. They also maintained a friendship with the Fox and Saukliving along the Mississippi in eastern Iowa and western Illinois, and itcan be said that during this period the Winnebago lived in peace with veryfew enemies. However, their ties to the Fox and Sauk and those leaddeposits in northwest Illinois would soon bring this to an end. The United States purchase of the Louisiana Territory from France in 1803changed the Winnebago's homeland from being at the edge to the center ofAmerican territory. Before this, the Winnebago had known the Americans asa distant enemy. Aside from their foray into the Illinois with the Britishin 1780, the Winnebago had never really met an American. This changed whenZebulon Pike's expedition explored the upper Mississippi in 1805. Hismeeting with the Winnebago near Prairie du Chien was peaceful, but theWinnebago soon had reason to worry. During 1804 William Henry Harrisonentertained a visiting Fox and Sauk delegation at St. Louis and, aftergetting them drunk, succeeded in convincing them to sign away theirtribe's lands east of the Mississippi in exchange for a few presents. Nextcame Fort Madison, the first American fort on the upper Mississippi, builtin southeast Iowa in 1809 and garrisoned with 50 soldiers. The Fox and Sauk refused to acknowledge the 1804 treaty and instantlybecame hostile to the Americans. The Winnebago were also concerned becauseof the lead deposits in their lands in northwest Illinois. In 1788 the Foxhad allowed Julien Dubuque, a French-Canadian from Michilimackinac, toopen a lead mine near the site of the Iowa city which now bears his name.Dubuque obtained a Spanish land grant to the site in 1796 and becamewealthy from fur trading and lead mining. When he died in 1810, St.Louiscreditors and land speculators attempted to seize his holdings, but theFox and Sauk prevented this by burning Dubuque's buildings to the ground.The threat of American takeover was no longer a distant threat in Ohio,and the Winnebago listened with great interest in 1809 to the religion ofTenskwatawa, the Shawnee Prophet and the call for unity and no furtherland cessions by his brother Tecumseh. Within a short time, the Winnebagowere one of the most militant members of Tecumseh's alliance against theAmericans. The Winnebago began making regular visits to Prophetstown (Tippecanoe) inIndiana during 1810 and even established a permanent village (Village duPuant) nearby. Tecumseh went south in the fall of 1811 to enlist thesouthern tribes against the Americans, During his absence, the Potawatomiattacked American settlements in Illinois starting a frontier war. WilliamHenry Harrison, the governor of the Indiana Territory, organized an armyand in November marched on Prophetstown. Tenskwatawa ignored his brother'sinstructions to avoid any confrontation with the Americans while he wasabsent and ordered his warriors to attack. The Winnebago lost heavily atthe Battle of Tippecanoe, but the military defeat was not nearly asimportant as the damage done to Tensquatawa's reputation as a prophet.Angry Winnebago warriors held him prisoner for two weeks and almost killedhim. When Tecumseh returned in January, 1812, his alliance was inshambles, but he able to rebuild and soon regained the allegiance of theWinnebago. With the outbreak of the War of 1812 (1812-14) in June, theWinnebago threw their support to Tecumseh and the British. With the Fox, Sauk, and Potawatomi, the Winnebago besieged Fort Madisonand forced its abandonment in 1813. Winnebago warriors also fought as partof Tecumseh's forces at Maumee Rapids and River Raisin in Ohio andMichigan. After Tecumseh was killed at the Battle of the Thames (October,1813), the Winnebago joined 500 warriors from the upper Great Lakes tohelp the British defeat the American attempt to retake FortMichilimackinac in August, 1814. The War of 1812 ended in a stalematebetween the British and Americans, but for the tribes of the Great Lakesand Ohio Valley it was total defeat. The Winnebago made peace with theAmericans at St. Louis in June, 1816. Their first treaty with the UnitedStates did not involve land cessions and called upon both sides to forgiveand forget injuries suffered during the war. The Winnebago kept their partof the agreement but remained hostile. They allowed Americans to travelthrough their territory from Mississippi to the Fox portage but chargedtolls. After the War of 1812, settlement began to advance up the Mississippi fromSt. Louis, but warfare in Iowa and Minnesota between the Dakota, Ojibwe,Fox, and Sauk slowed its progress. The government in 1825 attempted to endthe fighting at a grand council held with the area's tribes at Prairie duChien. Attended by the Ojibwe, Fox, Sauk, Menominee, Iowa, Sioux,Winnebago, Ottawa, and Potawatomi, the resulting treaty attempted to endintertribal warfare by establishing boundaries between them. It alsocreated a 40-mile wide buffer zone between the Dakota, Fox and Sauk innortheast Iowa. Called the Neutral Ground, the Americans hoped to relocatethe Winnebago there since they were friendly with both sides, but theWinnebago did not share the Americans optimism for this arrangement. Sinceits purpose was to facilitate settlement, the treaty made almost noprovision to protect native lands from white encroachment. It had onlylimited success in preventing warfare, but settlement afterwards movednorth at an accelerated pace. During the next 15 years the Winnebago would be forced to surrender mostof their homeland. The first target was the lead deposits in northwestIllinois, and in what can be described as the first (and last) "leadrush," Americans rushed in to stake their claims. Government agentsdescribed these people as "lawless" but did nothing to preventencroachment. Less than two years after the Treaty of Prairie du Chien,the Winnebago were forced into war to defend their lands. The resistance,known as the Winnebago War (1827), was led by the Winnebago Prophet WhiteCloud and the war chief Red Bird. Fighting began in the summer of 1827when a barge ascending the Mississippi near Prairie du Chien was firedupon. Other attacks killed some settlers along the lower Wisconsin Riverand struck the lead mines near Galena, Illinois. Soldiers were rushednorth from Jefferson Barracks at St. Louis, and by August it was over.Faced with a war they could not win, Red Bird and White Cloud surrenderedthemselves to be hanged to save their people. Red Bird died in prison, butWhite Cloud was pardoned by the president and released. Meanwhile, in atreaty signed a Green Bay in August, 1828, the Winnebago (also Ojibwe,Potawatomi, and Ottawa) ceded northern Illinois for $540,000. With the lead mining district secured, the next victims were the Fox andSauk in western Illinois. As a condition of peace in 1816, the UnitedStates had finally gotten their reluctant acceptance of that dubioustreaty signed at St. Louis in 1804 ceding all of their lands east of theMississippi. The bait was that the Fox and Sauk could stay until theAmericans needed the land. Most likely. neither the Fox, Sauk nor theAmerican representatives realized how soon this would be. Illinois becamea state in 1818 and within ten years was pressing for removal. Blackhawk'sSauk at Rock Island refused to move, but after the Menominee and Dakotamurdered 15 Fox chiefs enroute to a meeting with the Americans at Prairiedu Chien, war seemed eminent. Blackhawk brought his people west into Iowato protect the Fox and Sauk villages there from Dakota attacks which nevercame. When he started back to Illinois, the Americans refused to allow himto recross the Mississippi. Throughout the winter of 1831-32, the old war chief sat in eastern Iowaand fumed. In his anger, he listened to arguments from his friend Neapopeand the Winnebago Prophet (White Cloud) convincing him the British andother tribes were ready to join him against the Americans. In the springhe defiantly crossed the river into Illinois touching off the BlackhawkWar (1832). The help did not materialize. Only a few Potawatomi and WhiteCloud's small following among the Winnebago joined the revolt. Pursued bythe army and Illinois militia, Blackhawk retreated towards Wisconsinhoping to reach safety with either the Winnebago or Ojibwe. Most Winnebagowanted nothing to do with him and refused to help. Finally realizing this,Blackhawk turned west to try to return to Iowa. He never made it. Trappedbetween an American army and gunboat at the mouth of the Bad Axe River,the Sauk were slaughtered before surrendering. Menominee and Dakotawarriors killed many of those who managed to elude capture by theAmericans. A marked man, Blackhawk escaped before the battle and fled north. He wascaptured by the Winnebago of Chief Spoon Decorah (Choukeka), a friend ofthe Americans, who delivered him to the Indian Agent at Prairie du Chien.Despite this, the general feeling among the Americans was that theWinnebago had cooperated with Blackhawk. By the harsh terms of the treatynegotiated by General Winfield Scott at Fort Armstrong in September, 1832,the Winnebago ceded their lands east of the Mississippi and agreed to moveto Neutral Ground in northeast Iowa. They were to receive $270,000($10,000/year for 27 years) and were required to surrender several oftheir tribesmen accused of murdering whites during the war. Settlementmoved into southern Wisconsin afterwards, but the Winnebago remained intheir old lands, primarily because of hostility among the Fox and Sauk forthe Winnebago's failure to help them during the Blackhawk War. One out of four Winnebago died during a smallpox epidemic in 1836, whichmay have been a not-so-subtle hint for them to leave Wisconsin. A secondtreaty signed at Washington, D.C. in 1837 confirmed the Winnebago cessionof Wisconsin and reduced the size of the Neutral Ground, but the Winnebagodid not leave until 1840 when General Henry Atkinson refused to make theirannuities except at the Turkey River Subagency (Decorah, Iowa). By 1842approximately 2,200 Winnebago had settled in villages near the agencywhich was guarded by cavalry stationed nearby at Fort Atkinson, anecessary precaution since the threat of attack by the Fox and Sauk wasvery real. During the winter of 1839, they had killed 40 members of aWinnebago hunting party west of Wapsipinicon River. The following year,Fox and Sauk decided to attack the Winnebago villages near the agency butwere only prevented by a unusually heavy snowfall that winter. Meanwhile,more than 1,000 Winnebago had remained in their homeland giving FortAtkinson's cavalry the added problem of keeping the Iowa Winnebago fromgoing back to Wisconsin. With Iowa statehood in 1846, it was time for the Winnebago to be movedagain. In a 1845 treaty, the Winnebago exchanged their Iowa lands for the800,000 acre Long Prairie (Crow Wing River) reserve in Minnesota and$190,000. The move ended the threat of the Fox and Sauk, but placed theWinnebago as a buffer between the Dakota and Ojibwe. Some Winnebagomanaged to remain in northeast Iowa for more than a century, but the maingroup was moved during 1848 and 1849. The new location was unsatisfactoryfrom the beginning. Not only was there poor soil and a short growingseason, but the Ojibwe used the agency as a way-station to attack theDakota. In a treaty signed in 1856, the government allowed the Winnebagoto exchange the Long Prairie reserve from another farther south inMinnesota at Blue Earth. As their population declined, the Winnebagosurrendered a part of this in 1859 as excess lands. All went well until the Dakota uprising erupted in the Minnesota RiverValley during 1862 killing over 400 whites. The Winnebago had no part inthis, but in the aftermath, Minnesota was no longer safe. The Winnebagowere forcibly gathered together and deported by steamboat down theMississippi and then up the Missouri to the Crow Creek reservation inSouth Dakota with the Yankton (Sioux). Some got to leave the steamboat atHannibal, Missouri and travel by train to St. Joseph where they were putback on a boat for the rest of their journey up the Missouri. Evenallowing that the Civil War was in progress, conditions were terrible atthe South Dakota reservation. Many Winnebago slipped away to return toMinnesota and Wisconsin. Finally, the remaining 1,200 left enmass and fleddown the Missouri to ask the Omaha in eastern Nebraska for a refuge. The government finally accepted their self-relocation and in 1865purchased 40,000 acres from the Omaha to provide the Winnebago with theirown reservation. Life in Nebraska was far from easy, and exposed to Lakota(Sioux) raids, many of the Nebraska Winnebago volunteered as army scoutsagainst Lakota during 1868. While Winnebago were serving as scouts, theIndian Bureau - in its wisdom - conceived a plan of relocating theWinnebago to North Dakota as a buffer between the Lakota and the Mandan,Hidatsa, and Arikara. For some reason, the Winnebago declined. Meanwhile,the Winnebago in Wisconsin were routinely being arrested and returned toNebraska. Within a month, they were usually back in Wisconsin. After tenyears of this game, the government gave up after 1875, purchased homesteadlands for the Winnebago, and let them stay in Wisconsin. During the 1880s,over half of the Nebraska Winnebago went home to Wisconsin where they haveremained ever since scattered across ten counties. The other Winnebagoremained in Nebraska although 1/3 of their original 40,000 acrereservation was eventually lost to whites through allotment after 1887. First Nations referred to in this Winnebago History: Iroquois Kickapoo Mascouten Menominee Montagnais Neutral Shawnee Tionontati I look forward to your comments... Lee Sultzman. Histories Site FirstNations Index

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